Electronic Library of Scientific Literature

STUDIA PSYCHOLOGICA

Volume 42 / No. 3 / 2000

• SALUTOGENETIC APPROACH IN THE CONTEXT OF THE BIG FIVE FACTORS
• DEVELOPMENT OF PERSONALITY STRUCTURE FROM ADOLESCENCE TO OLD AGE: PRELIMINARY FINDINGS
• PERSONALITY CORRELATES OF NORMATIVE BELIEFS
• STRATEGIES OF SOCIAL BEHAVIOR FROM THE PERSPECTIVE OF SOCIAL NORMS
• ANALYSIS OF CONNECTIONS BETWEEN STRATEGIES OF BEHAVIOR IN DEMANDING SITUATIONS AND THE IDP MODEL OF STRUCTURE OF SOCIAL NORMS
• PERCEPTION OF RISK SITUATIONS AND ITS RELATION TO NORMATIVE BELIEFS IN FEMALES AND MALES
• SOCIAL AND PERSONAL NORMS - COMPARISON BETWEEN MEMBERS OF SLOVAK MAJORITY AND HUNGARIAN MINORITY IN THE SITUATIONAL CONTEXT
• MOTIVATIONAL BACKGROUND OF NORMATIVE CONVICTIONS
• DESCRIPTIVE NORMS - ADOLESCENTS AND THEIR ADJUSTMENT
• PREFERENCE OF COPING STRATEGIES IN RELATION TO HASSLES
• ANALYSIS OF THE EFFECT OF SOCIO-PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS ON CREATIVE PERFORMANCE
• TOWARD CREATIVITY AS A POTENTIAL FOR SOCIAL COMPETENCE
• SELF-CONCEPT AND POSSIBILITY OF ITS MODIFICATION USING SHORT-TERM INTERVENTION
• SOCIAL SKILLS - THE MEANING AND POSSIBILITIES OF THEIR DEVELOPMENT IN NEGLECTED CHILDREN
• INTELLECTUAL ABILITIES, LEVEL OF MOTIVATION AND STUDY PREFERENCES IN SELECTIVE CLASSES
• PSYCHOMETRIC RELATIONS BETWEEN SELF-ESTEEM MEASURES AND COPING WITH STRESS
• COGNITIVE STYLES AND SOME FACTORS OF THEIR DIFFERENTIATION: A PILOT REPORT
• RELATIONSHIPS OF FAMILY DIMENSIONS WITH SELF-ESTEEM IN EARLY ADOLESCENCE
• EFFECT OF INTEGRATED EDUCATION ON COGNITIVE AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT OF HEARING-IMPAIRED CHILDREN
• DIFFERENCES IN NORMATIVE GENDER BELIEFS IN GROUPS OF ADOLESCENT BOYS AND GIRLS
• TWO CONTRA-RULES: EQUALITY AND PROPORTIONALITY AS CRITERIA OF GAINS AND LOSSES FAIR DISTRIBUTION
• COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF COMMUNICATION SKILLS OF UNIVERSITY STUDENTS AND MEDIAN LEVEL EXECUTIVES IN RELATION TO CAREER ORIENTATION
• IDENTIFICATION OF DIMENSIONS OF OPENER ABILITY
• POSSIBILITIES OF QUANTIFICATION OF THE SEMASIOLOGICAL SELECTION TEST

SALUTOGENETIC APPROACH IN THE CONTEXT OF THE BIG FIVE FACTORS

Abstract: The salutogenetic approach is focused on the question why some people can better cope with stressful situations. The SOC coherence, as a global characteristic, expresses cohesion of life orientation, comprehension of the world as a meaningful entity and relying on oneself in the anticipation and control of the events around us. Its relation to the Big Five Factors as personality characteristics was studied in a sample of 115 adolescents aged 16.7 years and a sample of 53 pediatricians. We expected to find mainly a negative relation between coherence and neuroticism and a positive one between coherence and openness and conscientiousness. The results confirmed our hypotheses only partially.

Key words: sense of coherence, Big Five Factors, coping
pp. 157-161

DEVELOPMENT OF PERSONALITY STRUCTURE FROM ADOLESCENCE TO OLD AGE: PRELIMINARY FINDINGS

Abstract: The Czech version of the NEO-Five Factor Inventory (NEO-FFI) was used in the study of the development of personality structure from adolescence to old age. Participants consisted of 930 subjects (414 men, 516 women) aged 14-81. Results show that there is a relation between gender and self-report in the Big Five dimensions (Neuroticism, Extraversion, Openness to Experience, Agreeableness and Conscientiousness). Women tend to score higher than men in all five personality dimensions. Differences between the age groups suggest that personality dimensions change during development. It was found that younger people score higher on Neuroticism, Extraversion and Openness scales, whereas older people score higher on Agreeableness and Conscientiousness scales. These findings were discussed and compared with the results of related studies in other countries.

Key words: five-factor model of personality, NEO-FFI, developmental trends of Big Five, cross-cultural comparison
pp. 163-166

PERSONALITY CORRELATES OF NORMATIVE BELIEFS

Abstract: In the research, which was done on a sample of 166 university students, we tried to describe the interrelations between normative beliefs (IDP model) and personality characteristics, namely self-concept (operationalized through SELF scale), perception of risk (RTB scale), interpersonal traits (IK questionnaire) and behavioral strategies in demanding life situations (SPNSr).
The IDP model was presented by NOSTRA1 questionnaire. From our sample, two groups were separated: a) persons (N = 57) whose personal normative beliefs are higher than injunctive, and b) persons (N = 13), whose personal normative beliefs are lower (or equal to) than descriptive. Results showed statistically significant and psychologically interpretable differences between the groups. This fact could be interpreted in the sense, that behind the system of normative beliefs (represented by the IDP model) we can find as a minimum two strategies of social behavior, which have strong relations to the stable personality structures.

Key words: injunctive, descriptive, and personal norms, IDP model
pp. 167-171

STRATEGIES OF SOCIAL BEHAVIOR FROM THE PERSPECTIVE OF SOCIAL NORMS

Abstract: Previous findings confirmed the differentiation of injunctive, descriptive and personal norms as elements of normative beliefs of an individual. According to differentiated norms several types of solving social situations can be distinguished with respect to following or violating social norms. A relatively stable and general tendency of an individual to respect and follow norms or violate them can be interpreted as a strategy of behavior with respect to social norms (or from the perspective of social norms). In the context of the theory of cognitive representation of norms the existence of three types of such tendencies in the context of self-perception and personal identity was verified. By factor analysis of the PNI questionnaire two strategies (factors) were identified: tendency to follow injunctive norms and tendency to prefer personal principles regardless of social norms.

Key words: social norms, personal norms, strategies of social behavior
pp. 173-177

ANALYSIS OF CONNECTIONS BETWEEN STRATEGIES OF BEHAVIOR IN DEMANDING SITUATIONS AND THE IDP MODEL OF STRUCTURE OF SOCIAL NORMS

Abstract: From the point of view of our research approach the attention was concentrated on the problem of the relations between the selection strategies of behavior in demanding situations (problem solving, avoidance, seeking social support) in four life contexts (work, health, close interpersonal relations, moral and existentional questions) and the IDP model of structure of social norms, which enable us to detect injunctive, descriptive and personal norms. The presented results of the study confirmed the assumed structure of strategies of behavior in demanding situations, verified the IDP model of the structure of social norms, and at, the same time, suggested their mutual relations. From the methodological point of view the results obtained contributed to the solving of questions of transsituational stability and situational conditionality in the sense of the application of interactional paradigm.

Key words: strategies of behavior, demanding situations, social norms, interactional paradigm
pp. 177-180

PERCEPTION OF RISK SITUATIONS AND ITS RELATION TO NORMATIVE BELIEFS IN FEMALES AND MALES

Abstract: The presented paper is devoted to the study of some dimensions of perception of risk situations and also to the study of relations between situation perception and normative beliefs. The emphasis was placed on the differences determined by gender. Normative beliefs were determined by a three-level model of norms (IDP-model with injunctive, descriptive and personal level) in five risk situations (Nostra-R Questionnaire). Perception of situations was studied on the base of 7-point bipolar adjective scales. Subjects were 166 undergraduates (82 males, 84 females). Mean age was 20.8 years. The results revealed that females compared to males, characterize the risk behavior as more inappropriate. Furthermore, it was found, that in males there is a relatively strong connection between perception and normative beliefs. In contrast, this relation is essentially weaker in females.

Key words: perception of risk situations, normative beliefs of females and males
pp. 181-185

SOCIAL AND PERSONAL NORMS - COMPARISON BETWEEN MEMBERS OF SLOVAK MAJORITY AND HUNGARIAN MINORITY IN THE SITUATIONAL CONTEXT

Abstract: The paper presents the results of a research study in the area of the impact of social norms upon inter-ethnic relations. From the methodology point of view, the research applied the differentiation of types of social and personal norms (model IDP- injunctive, descriptive, personal norms), from the content point of view, the research was focused upon the application of verbalized and explicitly expressed legal norms regulating the status of minorities in the area of native language use (the languages of minorities). The goal of the research was, with the help of the creation of model situations in the area of inter-ethnic relations, to activate three levels of norms and to analyze them. The goal of the paper is to analyze the influence of the situational factor upon the differentiation of the stated types of norms of inter-ethnic relations in the interaction with the adherence to nationality.

Key words: research of inter-ethnic relations, social and personal norms, native language use
pp. 187-192

MOTIVATIONAL BACKGROUND OF NORMATIVE CONVICTIONS

Abstract: The contribution presents a study aimed at empirical verification of the relation between two main research theories: Cognitive Representations of the Norms theory (Lovaš, 1998) and Self-determination theory (Deci, Ryan, 1985). The goal is to obtain information on the motivational background (internal vs. external motivation) of normative convictions, which regulates an individual's behavior in social situations. The presentation of the basics and outcomes of the research is the core of the article.

Key words: motivation, social norms, normative convictions
pp. 193-196

DESCRIPTIVE NORMS - ADOLESCENTS AND THEIR ADJUSTMENT

Abstract: The discrepancy between norms and an individual's personality-social system can lead to maladjustment. In boys the adjustment problems prevailing are of the externalization type and in girls the internalization type. Changes are manifested in the measure of the influence of parents and peers in the process of becoming independent and creating one's own standards of behavior, in other words, internalization of social norms. Descriptive norms represent a level of social norms which manifests common problem solving, i.e., behavior in specific situations in a given society. We are presenting several examples of descriptive norms found for 15 year old adolescents in Slovakia. It concerns results of an interactionally conceptualized research for situations from the adolescent's everyday life.

Key words: adolescents, norms, adjustment
pp. 197-202

PREFERENCE OF COPING STRATEGIES IN RELATION TO HASSLES

Abstract: The subject of this study is the analysis of the preference of coping strategies in relation to various categories of hassles and to their total hassles score in adolescents. Girls with high total score in hassles prefer significantly more often strategies of planning, religion, focus on and venting of emotions, denial, behavioral and mental disengagement. Boys with high number of hassles more often prefer emotional social support and drug/alcohol use and also, identically to girls, planning and focus on and venting of emotions. Compared to boys, of the daily hassles, girls experience significantly more often loneliness and dissatisfaction with oneself (Factor 1), need for increased effort and lack of time (Factor 4).

Key words: coping strategies, hassles
pp. 203-208

ANALYSIS OF THE EFFECT OF SOCIO-PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS ON CREATIVE PERFORMANCE

Abstract: Recently, there has been an increase in the interest of researchers in the effect of social factors on the individual's creative output. Research results have confirmed that socio-psychological factors can significantly affect creativity, which represents an important part of the individual's cognitive activities. Social psychology of creativity is, today, a rapidly developing area of psychological theory and practice, the basic aim of which is to identify social factors and environmental conditions, which influence man's creativity in a positive or negative way. The concepts evaluation and coaction are among the fundamental categories of social psychology of creativity and thus area of research. Research findings have indicated that the expectation of an evaluation of creative performance as well as the presence of other individuals during such creative performance can have a dysfunctional effect on creativity. It is probable, that factors of evaluation (be it by others or self-evaluation) and coactions as interfering variables, decrease performance in tasks of heuristic character. In our contribution, we present an analysis of the results of research focused on the study of the effects of expectation of evaluation of a creative product and coaction on the degree of creativity. The results of an experimental study can be used to deduce some implications concerning the development of methodology and theory of social psychology of creativity and its application.

Key words: creativity, creative output, social facilitation, socio-psychological factors, evaluation
pp. 209-216

TOWARD CREATIVITY AS A POTENTIAL FOR SOCIAL COMPETENCE

Abstract: The study is focused on creative components in social cognition as a part of social competence in creative individuals. Using proverbs as representing original language products, a distinctiveness of high-creative subjects was shown in the indicators investigated: 1) higher sensitivity to creative attributes of proverbs; 2) higher ability to interpret a proverbial content; 3) stronger attention to interpersonal rather than individual meanings in proverbs. The findings indicate interpretative potential for social contents and for processing social information as cognitive components of social effectiveness in creative individuals.

Key words: creative thinking, social competence, proverbial creativity, interpersonal meaning, interpretative potential
pp. 217-220

SELF-CONCEPT AND POSSIBILITY OF ITS MODIFICATION USING SHORT-TERM INTERVENTION

Abstract: Self-concept influences the way individual behaves and feels. Long-term psychological modification of self-concept is time and resource demanding. Therefore it is necessary to search for new techniques that enable us to modify self-concept in relatively short time. The paper identifies groups of factors that may have intensive influence on self-concept modification.

Key words: self-concept, self-image, intervention, classification
pp. 221-223

SOCIAL SKILLS - THE MEANING AND POSSIBILITIES OF THEIR DEVELOPMENT IN NEGLECTED CHILDREN

Abstract: We trained the social skills in 24 children (experimental group) through a developmental program. We implemented methods such as modelling, role playing, feedback (following role play) and transfer training. The developmental training program lasted three months, involved a sequence of 30 exercises, each sitting in duration of 60 to 90 minutes. It was designed for the fostering of the following social skills: listening, starting a conversation, having a conversation, asking a question, saying thank you, introducing yourself, introducing other people, asking for help, joining in and apologizing. The author's program proved to be effective in developing all the above mentioned social skills in the experimental group in comparison with the control group (24 children). It was especially effective in developing listening, introducing yourself, saying thank you, apologizing and asking for help.

Key words: social skills, educationally neglected children, developmental program
pp. 225-229

INTELLECTUAL ABILITIES, LEVEL OF MOTIVATION AND STUDY PREFERENCES IN SELECTIVE CLASSES

Abstract: 8th grade students (aged 14 years) of selective language classes in basic school (Group 1 - N = 20, Group 2 - N = 21) were measured by Intelligence Structure Test (IST 70), Achievement Motivation Questionnaire (AMQ) and a structured interview was applied. The above-average results in IST 70 do not correspond to the low level of motivation found in AMQ. Study preferences showed adequate tendencies toward intellectual abilities of the students.

Key words: enriching education, selective class, intellectual abilities, level of motivation, study preferences
pp. 231-235

PSYCHOMETRIC RELATIONS BETWEEN SELF-ESTEEM MEASURES AND COPING WITH STRESS

Abstract: The study analyzes mutual interaction between various levels of self-esteem (self-concept clarity, state self-esteem, global self-esteem) and preference of coping strategies in adolescents. Low self-esteem usually correlates with the preference of less adaptive, avoidance strategies; in higher self-esteem the tendency is to use more effective, problem focused coping strategies. This assumption is verified with respect to sex and with respect to high/low levels of self-esteem indicators under study.

Key words: coping strategies, self-concept clarity, self-esteem, state self-esteem
pp. 234-242

COGNITIVE STYLES AND SOME FACTORS OF THEIR DIFFERENTIATION: A PILOT REPORT

Abstract: This paper's aim is to find some differing characteristics of cognitive styles with respect to the stability and variability of the cognitive style, using the MBTI indicator. Some differences in preferences of coping strategy and of learning styles are to be recognized here. From the development viewpoint, the comparison of three age groups has revealed different results in cognitive characteristics with respect to age. The stability of the cognitive style corresponds with the possibility to anticipate relations of changes in the context of the activation and development of the cognitive style.

Key words: cognitive style, climate, coping, learning style
pp. 243-247

RELATIONSHIPS OF FAMILY DIMENSIONS WITH SELF-ESTEEM IN EARLY ADOLESCENCE

Abstract: The connections of self-esteem with family environment and parental behavior in perception of adolescents are analyzed. Weakening of emotional attachment to parents with increasing age was confirmed, as well as decrease of family self-esteem and decrease of parental control. A close emotional relationship with parents still remains an important factor in maintaining stable and positive personal self-esteem in early adolescence. The different influence of family on a particular sex is evident, however, it is mostly affection that they need from parents. The results also indicate significant connections of self-esteem with cohesion, expressiveness, non conflict atmosphere, but also with rules and organization in family. The sample consisted of 391 respondents at the age of 11-14 years.

Key words: self-esteem, family environment, loving, punishment, demanding
pp. 249-254

EFFECT OF INTEGRATED EDUCATION ON COGNITIVE AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT OF HEARING-IMPAIRED CHILDREN

Abstract: The presented contribution informs the reader about research follow-up and comparisons of cognitive and personality development specifications of 30 hearing-impaired children attending integrated education with their peers in special schools. We found differences in the level of speech competence, social capability and the degree of their personality differentiation. In addition to integrated education, application of early professional care and stimulating family environment play their role, too.

Key words: hearing-impaired children, integrated system of education, cognitive and personality development
pp. 255-260

DIFFERENCES IN NORMATIVE GENDER BELIEFS IN GROUPS OF ADOLESCENT BOYS AND GIRLS

Abstract: In a study with high school students (109 girls and 69 boys), aged 17-18 yrs., normative beliefs concerning the appropriate behavior of men and women were examined. It was expected that girls and boys will differ in gender beliefs and that they will judge close friends and relatives differently. The results brought concordance as well as serious differences in gender norms between girls and boys. Moreover, differences in gender beliefs were revealed within both groups, girls and boys.

Girls are less unanimous in their beliefs about a woman's appropriate behavior. Moreover, norms of a woman's behavior, which are on the background of patriarchal norms, appear to be more "problematic" and controversial. Female and male research participants with more progressive gender beliefs evaluated women and men of the older generation differently (more negatively; including their own parents) from those with the traditional patriarchal gender norm of a woman's behavior.

Key words: gender normative beliefs, gender identity, adolescents study
pp. 261-266

TWO CONTRA-RULES: EQUALITY AND PROPORTIONALITY AS CRITERIA OF GAINS AND LOSSES FAIR DISTRIBUTION

Abstract: The presented research was aimed at the evaluation of the fairness of distribution rules: equality and proportionality - the impact of the RULE factor: a) from four spheres of social life - the impact of SPHERES, b) as gains and losses - the impact of RESOURCE. The research method was constructed at three levels: 1) rules (equality, proportionality), 2) spheres of social life (economic, political, social, humanistic), 3) resource (gains, losses). The results of the research indicated that all three factors under study highly significantly determine the evaluation of the distribution event and that each event should be considered as unique and specific. The respondents (n = 168, 45% women, 55% men) expressed greater differences in evaluating the rule used (between equality and proportionality) at the level of gains than at the level of losses.

Key words: fairness of distribution, equality, proportionality, resources - gains and losses
pp. 267-271

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF COMMUNICATION SKILLS OF UNIVERSITY STUDENTS AND MEDIAN LEVEL EXECUTIVES IN RELATION TO CAREER ORIENTATION

Abstract: In the study the author deals with the differences in communication skills and preference of communication style in relation to career orientation among university students and executives in practice. She worked with four 10-13 member groups of subjects. The results indicate, in terms of gender, that men have a significantly higher tendency toward self-assertion than women do. The university students were more skillful in communication and better prepared than executives. Furthermore, the analysis revealed that assertive behavior in the sense of healthy spontaneous communication is not a matter of course by far, in our conditions. Particularly in women, but to a lesser degree in men as well, it has a tendency to reach extreme values either in the direction of aggression or submission. At the same time, an assertively communicating individual is perceived in our society to be disturbing interpersonal relationships and his/her expressions are taken to be annoying, impolite or even rude.

Key words: communication, career, assertiveness, career orientation
pp. 273-277

IDENTIFICATION OF DIMENSIONS OF OPENER ABILITY

Abstract: This research investigated the phenomenon of opener ability, which means an individual tendency to elicit intimate self-disclosure of others. One part of the subjects included in the research (n = 67) describes an ideal hypothetical opener in terms of 60 statements. Other subjects (n = 100) with the same statements carry out self-appraisal. An explorative factor analysis reveals 5 factors, which are the dimensions of the opener ability construct.

Key words: opener, self-disclosure, intimacy, intimate communication
pp. 279-282

POSSIBILITIES OF QUANTIFICATION OF THE SEMASIOLOGICAL SELECTION TEST

Abstract: Regardless of the fact that the Semasiological Selection Test is not a standardized method, it is widely used, for instance in counselling. The existing procedures used for interpretation of the results usually employ some reference words that are selected rather arbitrarily. The other words are then placed on the grid or table defined by the reference words, which is divided into four quadrants. The paper is concerned with the development of the existing procedure in order to enable its use both at work with an individual client and in the conditions of group testing.

Key words: psychodiagnostics, interpretation, scaling
pp. 283-288