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In June 2025, two major projects of the Slovak Research and Development Agency (APVV-20-0335 and APVV-20-0387) were completed at the Institute of Experimental Psychology, Centre of Social and Psychological Sciences of the Slovak Academy of Sciences (IEP CSPS SAS). The projects focused on the psychological and social causes of epistemically unfounded beliefs, especially conspiracy theories and disinformation. They were conducted from 2021 and both responded to the increasing prevalence of unfounded beliefs and their related negative phenomena during the COVID-19 pandemic and the war in Ukraine. The research brought important findings about the mechanisms behind the emergence and spread of unfounded beliefs, and about how they are influenced by cognitive biases, negative emotions, and social conditions. One of the outputs of both projects is a freely available brochure that summarizes their findings.

The first project (“Psychological correlates of unfounded information and beliefs related to the COVID-19 pandemic”) focused on the long-term psychological and social consequences of the COVID-19 pandemic, especially on how it contributed to the spread of conspiracy beliefs, loss of trust in institutions, and maladaptive behavior. As part of the project, a three-wave longitudinal data collection was carried out, which made it possible to track how unfounded beliefs change over time and to determine the temporal sequence of possible causes and consequences. Among the greatest contributions are results identifying the long-term negative social consequences of conspiracy theories. For example, it was shown that people who succumb to conspiracies are less satisfied with their standard of living, worry about their financial situation, anticipate financial problems in the future, and at the same time are less willing to take steps to stabilize their financial situation. Feelings of helplessness and distress are associated with higher susceptibility to conspiracy and pseudoscientific beliefs; at the same time, the research[1] showed that conspiracy and pseudoscientific beliefs amplify these negative feelings over time, and their effect on deepening helplessness and psychological distress is stronger than in the opposite direction. However, their overall relationship can be considered bidirectional, which suggests mutual reinforcement.

A similar bidirectional relationship and mutual reinforcement between trust in conspiracy beliefs and distrust toward institutions and experts also emerged in another study[2]. Interestingly, while the relationships were reciprocal in the case of trust in government, in the case of declining trust in experts (scientists and physicians) the negative effect of the spread of conspiracy and pseudoscientific beliefs was more pronounced. These findings indicate that unfounded beliefs can weaken trust in key institutions, which has serious consequences, especially in periods of health and social crises.

The project also focused on the long-term connections between trust in conspiracy beliefs and economic anxiety. In a series of two studies[3], it was found that conspiracy beliefs, across different cultural contexts, are associated with higher economic anxiety. Longitudinal analyses confirmed that it is conspiracy beliefs that increase feelings of economic anxiety, and not the other way around.

The second project (“Reducing the spread of disinformation and unfounded beliefs”) focused more on cognitive, personality, and social factors that contribute to the acceptance and spread of disinformation and unfounded beliefs. The effectiveness of various anti-disinformation strategies was also tested. Two studies[4;5] showed that anti-conspiracy arguments can reduce conspiracy beliefs and non-normative political behavior even among people with firmly entrenched views, although for topics such as vaccination their influence on attitudes remains limited. These results suggest that debunking may have a limited effect on long-maintained unfounded beliefs and that evaluating the effectiveness of interventions in controversial topics, such as vaccination, requires further research.

The effectiveness of corrective messages containing factual information in debunking disinformation[6] was also examined, and the impact of timing of the corrective intervention was compared—before exposure to disinformation (prebunking) versus after exposure to disinformation (debunking). Debunking significantly reduced trust in disinformation claims and this effect persisted for at least several weeks. Prebunking was effective only for a very short period, or when applied immediately before exposure to disinformation.

The results of both projects bring new insights into the vicious circle of conspiracy beliefs, distrust, and emotional distress, highlighting the interplay of cognitive biases, negative emotions (such as anxiety or helplessness), and broader social factors, such as economic precarity or political polarization. The findings have not only theoretical significance but also practical value in the form of recommendations on how to effectively limit the spread of disinformation and increase society’s resilience through targeted communication and education.

Practical recommendations from the research, applicable in everyday life:

• Be vigilant about your own overconfidence. Our research showed that most people think they can distinguish truth from lies, but we are often mistaken – and those who overestimate themselves the most are the most vulnerable to disinformation.
• Invest in media literacy. We showed that even simple tips can improve the ability to detect fake news.
• When encountering disinformation, factual debunking has a greater effect on reducing belief in disinformation than preventive prebunking.
• Bear in mind that economic insecurity and low trust in institutions increase susceptibility to conspiracy theories. Supporting trust in institutions and improving the economic situation can help limit the spread of conspiracy beliefs.
• Do not ignore your own feelings of anxiety and helplessness – they can make you more vulnerable to disinformation. Building psychological resilience and coping with stress are important forms of prevention.

A concise summary of the most important results and recommendations of both projects can be found in the information brochure, which you can download in Slovak and English

Prepared by: Vladimíra Čavojová, Viktória Sunyík a Matej Lorko, IEP CSPS SASReferences:

[1] Ballová Mikušková, E., & Teličák, P. (2024). Unfounded beliefs, distress and powerlessness: A three‐wave longitudinal study. Applied Psychology: Health and Well‐Being, 16(4), 1539-1564.

[2] Merva, R., Šrol, J., & Čavojová, V. (2025). Institutional Distrust: Catalyst or Consequence of the Spread of Unfounded COVID-19 Beliefs?. Studia Psychologica, 67(1), 24-37

[3] Adamus, M., Chayinska, M., Šrol, J., Adam‐Troian, J., Ballová Mikušková, E., & Teličak, P. (2025). All you'll feel is doom and gloom: Multiple perspectives on the associations between economic anxiety and conspiracy beliefs. Political Psychology.

[4] Šrol, J., Čavojová, V., & Adamus, M. (2025). Dispelling the fog of conspiracy: Experimental manipulations, individual difference factors and the tendency to endorse conspiracy explanations. Thinking & Reasoning, 1–32. https://doi.org/10.1080/13546783.2025.2464962

[5] Adamus, M., Ballová Mikušková, E., & Kohut, M. (2024). Conspire to one's own detriment: Strengthening HPV Program Support Through Debunking Epistemically Suspect Beliefs. Applied psychology. Health and well-being, 16(4), 1886–1904.

[6] Lorko, M., Čavojová, V., Šrol, J., Priesol, R., Jalakšová, P., & Tužilová, B. (n.d.). Timing matters: Three-study test of the effects of debunking vs. prebunking on trust in disinformation.